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Individuals differ in their timing of sleep (bed times, rise times) and in their preference for morning or evening hours. Previous work focused on the relationship between academic achievement and these variables in secondary school students. The main aim of the study is to investigate the relationship between chronotype and academic achievement in 10-year-old children (n = 1125, 536 girls, 584 boys and 5 sex unspecified) attending 4th grade of primary school. They filled a cognitive test (Culture Fair Intelligence Test, CFT 20-R) and questions about rise times and bed times, academic achievement, conscientiousness and motivation. We implemented questions about wake times and bed times, academic achievement (measured by grades in Mathematics, German, English and Nature & Culture), ‘‘scales for the assessment of learning and performance motivation’’ (SELLMO; Skalen zur Erfassung der Lern- und Leistungsmotivation for motivation), the short version of the Five-Factor Personality Inventory Children (FFPI-C) to measure conscientiousness, and the Composite Scale of Morningness (CSM) to assess morningness-eveningness. Mean CSM score was 37.84 ± 6.66, midpoint of sleep was 1:36 ± 00:25 and average sleep duration (time in bed) was 10:15 ± 0:48. Morningness orientation was positively related to intelligence, conscientiousness and learning objectives. Results showed that boys and girls did not differ in chronotype. There were significant differences between girls and boys in academic performance but the direction was subject-specific: Girls did better in languages (German, English) and Nature & Culture, but boys had better scores in Mathematics. Overall, there were no gender differences in grades. There were significant gender differences in midpoint of sleep with girls sleeping later and showed higher social jetlag. Eveningness orientation was related to avoidance performance objectives and work avoidance. Early midpoint of sleep, conscientiousness and intelligence were associated with better grades. The multivariate model showed that intelligence was the strongest predictor of good grades. Conscientiousness, motivation, younger age and an earlier midpoint of sleep were positively related to good grades. This is the first study in primary school pupils, and it shows that the negative relationship between evening orientation and academic achievement is already prevalent at this age even when controlling for important predictors of achievement.
Freizeitspiele besitzen nicht nur für Kinder und Jugendliche eine hohe Attraktivität. Egal, ob Lernspiel oder Freizeitspiel, es lassen sich im Spielkern neben den Spielregeln oder den definierten Ausgangs- und Zielzuständen immer auch spieltypische Handlungen finden. Beim Ausführen dieser Handlungen werden beim Spieler jedes Mal bestimmte Denk- und Handlungsweisen (Prozesse) aktiviert, die gezielt vom Spiel gefordert werden. Genau hier steckt bei Freizeitspielen didaktisches Potential. Diese beim Spielen aktivierten Prozesse lassen sich in verschiedenen Lernmodellen (Bloom et al., 1976; Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001) wiederfinden. Jedes Spiel aktiviert dabei beim Spieler bestimmte Prozesse. Mit dieser Arbeit sollen prozessdidaktisch relevante Denk- und Handlungsweisen erstmals empirisch mit Hilfe einer Fragebogenstudie in den Genres und Spielen identifiziert und kategorisiert werden. Diese Arbeit umfasst die ganzheitlich- prozessorientierte Untersuchung aktueller Computer- und Videospielgenres. Als genretypisch für das Genre der Abenteuerspiele wurden beispielweise die Prozesse Probleme lösen, untersuchen oder Zusammenhänge finden als stark ausgeprägt identifiziert. Neben spiel- und genretypischen Prozessen gibt es aber auch Prozesse und Prozessgruppen, die sich in allen Genres wiederfinden lassen. Diese zentralen Prozesse sind mit dem Planen, Ausführen und Reflektieren spielerzentrierter Handlungen verbunden. Dazu zählen Prozesse wie beobachten, analysieren, Vorgehensweisen festlegen oder Wissen anwenden. Diese zentral- handlungsorientierten Prozesse zeigen die prozessbasierte Struktur von Freizeitspielen. Sie helfen so zu verstehen, welches Potential hinter Freizeitspielen für die Prozessdidaktik stecken kann. In den repräsentativen Systemen von Freizeitspielen kann der Spieler in der Rolle eines beiläufigen Lernens Ideen entwickeln und Probleme lösen (kreativ-problemzentrierte Prozesse), Ursache- und Wirkungsprinzipien erkennen (reflexiv-kategorisierende Prozesse) oder kommunizieren und zusammenarbeiten (sozial-kollaborative Prozesse). Für den weiterführenden didaktischen Einsatz mit digitalen Spielen können auf Basis der Ergebnisse geeignete Genres oder Genregruppen mit typischem Prozessvorkommen gezielt für die Vermittlungsarbeit herausgesucht werden.
ABSTRACT
The problem that prompted this study is the absence of modern approaches and methods of teaching and learning science in Mozambican educational system. Currently, the science curricula in Mozambique can be characterized as: organized in separated disciplines, based on canonical science content, and teaching practices that are based on a teacher-centered approach using traditional methods of teaching.
On the other hand, there is an approach of teaching and learning which focus on the relationship between Science, Technology and Society (STS) that is well established in science education since the late 80s. This approach of teaching is claimed to be one of the best ways to achieve scientific literacy, promote decision-making and active citizenship of students in social issues pertaining the society where they live, and it had been used in many developed and developing countries.
Taking into account this discrepancy, and trying to find a solution for the problem the following research questions were posed:
1. What are Mozambican university students' views about the relationship between science, technology and society?
2. Does an STS approach of teaching involving inquiry type of laboratory work using an open-ended approach contribute to change students' views and beliefs about STS issues?
3. Could an STS approach of teaching be successfully implemented in Mozambican educational system at secondary and tertiary level?
In order to answer these questions and in a quest to find solutions for the problem posed a mixed-method approach was used, combining both qualitative and quantitative methods. There was a survey carried out in all branches of the Pedagogical University of Mozambique, covering all provinces of the country, and there was an intervention process implemented in iterative way in two tiers in two consecutive years.
The main instrument used to gather data, both in the survey and in the intervention process were 19 VOSTS item selected from a pool of 114 multiple choice items developed in Canada in late 80s to assess students' "Views on Science - Technology - Society" (VOSTS). The 19 VOSTS items selected for the study, after translation from English to Portuguese were adapted and adopted as the main research instrument. The questionnaire administered to students both in survey and intervention consisted of 13 VOSTS items, of which only 7 were identical. The 6 VOSTS items used in the survey were focusing on views of science in medias and science class and aspects related to the technology development and implementation, while the 6 other different used in the intervention process were focused on the nature of science (epistemology).
The survey was carried out by administering the 13 VOSTS items questionnaire in all ten provinces of the country with branches of the Pedagogical University, using 832 second year students enrolled in four science or science related courses of: agriculture, biology, chemistry and physics. The aim of the survey was to establish a baseline situation of the country about STS issues, since the study was the first of its kind in the country.
The intervention process was made in two tiers in two consecutive years, involving 59 second year chemistry students of one branch. The intervention process was implemented in 12 weeks and the design consisted of four different stages: (1) pretest, consisted of administering the 13 VOSTS items questionnaire; (2) seminars about STS issues, STS approach, and about inquiry type of practical work using open ended approach; (3) students performing experiments to solve problems posed using the knowledge about STS issues. During this process field notes and some videotapes were made; (4) post-test at the end of the process using the same instrument administered in the pretest, and (5) post-intervention interview with selected students who participated in the study to evaluate the process in which they were involved.
To assess students' responses to the questionnaires administered both in the survey and in the intervention, a panel of 10 experts was assembled as judges, all of them university lecturers with PhD Degree and more than 15 experience teaching biology (1), chemistry (5), physics (1); mathematics (3) and French teacher (1). Their task was to categorize the options of each VOSTS statement and classify as Realistic, and other options could be classified as many times as possible as Has Merit or Naïve. The last three options that were common to all VOSTS items were considered Passive. After analyzing the classifications of every expert, an effort was made to find consensus and come up with one final categorization that could be used a scoring scheme to assess students' responses to the questionnaire. In those VOSTS items where there were discrepancies in selecting the Realistic view it was solved by adopting categorization made in other studies using the same VOSTS items made by people acquitted with STS issues, unlike the experts used in this research (only one was acquitted with the approach). G
The underlying assumption in this study is that the ultimate goal of science teaching is to change students' opinions progressively “from Naïve” to “Has merit”, and from there to a “Realistic” view about the relationship between science, technology and society. Taking this into consideration the following conclusions were inferred:
1. Mozambican students' views and beliefs about the relationship between science, technology and society are positive, they correspond to what is commonly accepted in the scientific community about the STS issues assessed in this study.
2. The results from the baseline study, besides being considered positive showed that students irrespective of the course that they are enrolled (agriculture, biology, chemistry and physics), have no significant difference on the STS issues assessed.
3. An STS approach of teaching implemented through inquiry type of practical work using open ended approach during twelve (12) weeks suggests that students' views are positive and are more in line with what is accepted in the scientific community about the 13 VOSTS items assessed in the intervention process.
4. Based on the results of the intervention process with the experimental group in two different years it can be concluded that the STS approach of teaching proposed and implemented though inquiry type of practical work using open ended approach did not contributed to change students' views and beliefs about STS issues from pretest to post-test, except in two of the 13 VOSTS items assessed.
5. By comparing students' responses to the seven common VOSTS items in the baseline study and in the intervention process, in both years and pretest and post-test, the answer pattern are similar. These findings show, on one hand that all science students share the same views about science, and on the other hand that irrespective of the intervention made students did not change their views.
6. Based on the results of the baseline study, the results of the intervention process and taking into account the evaluation of the blue print documents about Mozambican educational system and the socio-politic context of the country it can be concluded that the STS approach of teaching can be implemented in Mozambique.
Finally, it is worthy to consider that taking into account the study design made, the sample size used, and the rigor in controlling variables, it is believed that the results of this study are valid and can be generalized to other Mozambican students with the same science background. Furthermore, when considering science as universal irrespective of the place where it takes place, some of the findings of this study can be generalized to other places in world.